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INTRODUCTION
The Silent Way is a method of Language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. This method is well-known for its materials such as Cuisenaire rods and Fidel Charts. Gattegno had taken the idea of Cuisenaire rods which were first developed by Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of math. The most prevailing difference of this method from previous ones is giving more importance to learning.
TEACHER and LEARNER ROLES
a) Teacher Roles
√ The teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom to encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible.
√ The teacher is expected to create an environment that encourages student’s risk taking that facilitates learning.
√ The teacher should give only what help is necessary. In other words, the teacher makes use of what students already know. The more the teacher does for the students what they can do for themselves, the less they will do for themselves (Larsen-Freeman 1986).
b) Learner Roles
√ The learner is expected to become ‘independent, autonomous, and responsible’ in language.
√ Learners are expected to interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other. They must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. The teacher’s silence encourages group cooperation.
√ In order not to miss what the teacher says, learners must give the teacher their attention. Learner-attention is a key to learning.
As Long (1987) states under the skilful direction of the teacher, learners will provide each other with correct models and encourage each other’s initiative. Thus, this method fosters interdependence and cooperation among learners at the same time it promotes independence from the teacher and reliance on what knows to learn what one does not know.
THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METHOD
√ A cardinal principle of the Silent Way is respect for the students’ capacity to work out language problems and recall information on their own with no verbalization and minimal help from the teacher.
√ Errors are indispensable and natural part of the learning process. Self-correction and peer-correction are emphasized. The teacher corrects the language only as a last resort.
√ Teachers can help more frequently and more effectively if they stop interfering.
√ Repetition consumes time and encourages the scattered mind to remain scattered. If the teacher avoids repetition strictly, this will force alertness and concentration on the part of the learners. By this way the efficiency in learning will be increased and the time will be saved for further learning (Gattegno 1972 as cited in Oller and Amato: 1983). This principle is against ALM.
√ Type of interaction: student-student verbal interaction is desired and encouraged. The teacher’s silence is one way to achieve this.
√ Students’ native language: native language can be used to give instructions when necessary. Also native language can be used during the feedback sessions (at least for beginner levels). If the native language is not very essential then it is avoided.
√ Evaluation: although the teacher does not have to give a formal test, s/he assesses student learning all the time. One criterion of whether or not students have learned is their ability to transfer what they have been studying to new contexts.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
a) Advantages
√ This method fosters cooperative learning between individuals.
√ It embodies a new approach to education in general, a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individual’s extraordinary cognitive powers.
√ If it is succeeded to teach the language the by using the rods without repeating too much, it will really save time and energy for both teachers students. The advocates of the Silent Way claim that the short-term memory is used artificially but well. The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this will enhance learning. By this way students will say ‘I learned instead of I was taught well.’ (Demircan1990).
b) Disadvantages
√ It would seem necessary for a teacher to gain a good deal of training and skill in order to apply the Silent Way to the teaching of a total grammar in all its complexity, if such a broad application is, in fact, possible.
√ This method can be benefited by the teacher only in small groups of students. The teacher can gain ability in this method by trying. The teacher is expected to enrich the materials on his/her own.
√ For some teachers the rigidity of the system (no repetitions by the teacher, no answers by the teacher etc.) may be meaningless.
√ For some learners, one limitation is the approach to language basics which begins with seemingly irrelevant discussions about rods and which involves silence and concentration and games with the teacher about meaning. Students’ expectations and need for immediately relevant language learning may force teachers to abandon the approach (Celce-Murcia 1979).
√ How such a method would in the average classroom situation, or how successfully it might be used at more advanced levels is a question mark left in our minds.
√ Language is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations usually by rods.
The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
--tomorrow
--in the cafeteria tomorrow
--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
The Silent Way is a method of Language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. This method is well-known for its materials such as Cuisenaire rods and Fidel Charts. Gattegno had taken the idea of Cuisenaire rods which were first developed by Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of math. The most prevailing difference of this method from previous ones is giving more importance to learning.
TEACHER and LEARNER ROLES
a) Teacher Roles
√ The teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom to encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible.
√ The teacher is expected to create an environment that encourages student’s risk taking that facilitates learning.
√ The teacher should give only what help is necessary. In other words, the teacher makes use of what students already know. The more the teacher does for the students what they can do for themselves, the less they will do for themselves (Larsen-Freeman 1986).
b) Learner Roles
√ The learner is expected to become ‘independent, autonomous, and responsible’ in language.
√ Learners are expected to interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other. They must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. The teacher’s silence encourages group cooperation.
√ In order not to miss what the teacher says, learners must give the teacher their attention. Learner-attention is a key to learning.
As Long (1987) states under the skilful direction of the teacher, learners will provide each other with correct models and encourage each other’s initiative. Thus, this method fosters interdependence and cooperation among learners at the same time it promotes independence from the teacher and reliance on what knows to learn what one does not know.
THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METHOD
√ A cardinal principle of the Silent Way is respect for the students’ capacity to work out language problems and recall information on their own with no verbalization and minimal help from the teacher.
√ Errors are indispensable and natural part of the learning process. Self-correction and peer-correction are emphasized. The teacher corrects the language only as a last resort.
√ Teachers can help more frequently and more effectively if they stop interfering.
√ Repetition consumes time and encourages the scattered mind to remain scattered. If the teacher avoids repetition strictly, this will force alertness and concentration on the part of the learners. By this way the efficiency in learning will be increased and the time will be saved for further learning (Gattegno 1972 as cited in Oller and Amato: 1983). This principle is against ALM.
√ Type of interaction: student-student verbal interaction is desired and encouraged. The teacher’s silence is one way to achieve this.
√ Students’ native language: native language can be used to give instructions when necessary. Also native language can be used during the feedback sessions (at least for beginner levels). If the native language is not very essential then it is avoided.
√ Evaluation: although the teacher does not have to give a formal test, s/he assesses student learning all the time. One criterion of whether or not students have learned is their ability to transfer what they have been studying to new contexts.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
a) Advantages
√ This method fosters cooperative learning between individuals.
√ It embodies a new approach to education in general, a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individual’s extraordinary cognitive powers.
√ If it is succeeded to teach the language the by using the rods without repeating too much, it will really save time and energy for both teachers students. The advocates of the Silent Way claim that the short-term memory is used artificially but well. The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this will enhance learning. By this way students will say ‘I learned instead of I was taught well.’ (Demircan1990).
b) Disadvantages
√ It would seem necessary for a teacher to gain a good deal of training and skill in order to apply the Silent Way to the teaching of a total grammar in all its complexity, if such a broad application is, in fact, possible.
√ This method can be benefited by the teacher only in small groups of students. The teacher can gain ability in this method by trying. The teacher is expected to enrich the materials on his/her own.
√ For some teachers the rigidity of the system (no repetitions by the teacher, no answers by the teacher etc.) may be meaningless.
√ For some learners, one limitation is the approach to language basics which begins with seemingly irrelevant discussions about rods and which involves silence and concentration and games with the teacher about meaning. Students’ expectations and need for immediately relevant language learning may force teachers to abandon the approach (Celce-Murcia 1979).
√ How such a method would in the average classroom situation, or how successfully it might be used at more advanced levels is a question mark left in our minds.
√ Language is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations usually by rods.
The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
--tomorrow
--in the cafeteria tomorrow
--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
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